"There are increasing concerns about the relationship between special education funding and special education services. There is increasing recognition on the part of special education policy makers that special education funding provisions impact the ways in which special education programming is designed and provided. The way special education is funded can create incentives for developing programs that run counter to "best practice," and in some cases to the letter or the spirit of federal and state law. For example, funding provisions can create incentives for placing special education students in more restrictive settings instead of promoting the least restrictive environment provisions of the IDEA." (From Special Education in an Era of School Reform: Special Education Finance, Thomas B. Parrish, Center for Special Education Finance, 1997).
Following are links to ERIC digests, minibibliographies, frequently asked questions (FAQs), related Internet resources, and Internet discussion groups,
as well as selected citations from the ERIC database and the search terms we used to find the
citations.
The full text of citations beginning with an ED number (for example, EDxxxxxx) is available:
The full text of citations beginning with an EJ number (for example, EJxxxxxx) is available for a fee from:
The full text of citations beginning with an EJ number (for example, EJxxxxxx) is available for a fee from:
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ERIC Search Terms Used
inclusive schools
AND
financial support OR cost effectiveness OR educational finance
EJ627947 EC627531
Title: The Costs of Inclusive and Traditional Special Education Preschool Services.
Author(s) Odom, Samuel L.; Parrish, Thomas B.; Hikido, Christine
Source: Journal of Special Education Leadership, v14 n1 p33-41 2001
Publication Date: 2001
Notes: Special Issue: Special Education Finance.
Document Type: Journal articles (080); Reports--Research (143)
Journal Announcement: CIJDEC2001
A study examined the costs of different models of inclusion and traditional special
education preschool programs in five local education agencies in five states.
Results show lower costs associated with more inclusive models as compared to
traditional forms of special education provision on an annual and per hour basis.
Descriptors: *Delivery Systems; *Disabilities; *Educational Finance; *Expenditure
per Student; *Financial Support; *Inclusive Schools; Preschool Children; Preschool
Education; Special Education; Special Programs; State School District Relationship
EJ624771 EC627128
Title: The Costs of Preschool Inclusion.
Author(s) Odom, Samuel L.; Hanson, Marci J.; Lieber, Joan; Marquart, Jules;
Sandall, Susan; Wolery, Ruth; Horn, Eva; Schwartz, Ilene; Beckman, Paula; Hikido,
Christine; Chambers, Jay
Source: Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, v21 n1 p46-55 Spr 2001
Publication Date: 2001
ISSN: 0271-1214
Document Type: Journal articles (080); Reports--Evaluative (142)
Journal Announcement: CIJOCT2001
Cost information was collected from five local education agencies that provided
inclusive and traditional special education service options for preschool children
with disabilities. Within-agency comparisons suggested that inclusive models were
generally less expensive or comparable in cost to traditional forms of special
education. Specific cost features were associated differently with different models.
Descriptors: Comparative Analysis; *Disabilities; *Educational Finance;
*Expenditure per Student; *Inclusive Schools; Preschool Education; *Program Costs;
School Districts; *Special Education; Teaching Models
ED443208 EC307900
Title: A Comparison of the Costs and Educational Outcomes of Three Models of
Service Delivery for Special Needs Students.
Author(s) Pruslow, John T.
Pages: 48
Publication Date: April 26, 2000
Notes: Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research
Association, (New Orleans, LA, April 24-28, 2000). Research supported in part by a
1999 Scholar in Policy Analysis Award.
Sponsoring Agency: National Center for Education Statistics (ED), Washington, DC. (EDD00004)
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC02 Plus Postage.
Document Type: Reports--Evaluative (142); Speeches/meeting papers (150)
Journal Announcement: RIEJAN2001
This paper reports on a cost analysis of Kings Park (New York) Central School
District's expenditures for special education services and relates that analysis to a
comparison of proposed models of service delivery. The first section of the paper
reviews the current status of New York State's initiative to document educational
outcomes for special needs students and summarizes three recommended models of
service delivery derived from research and the professional literature: (1) the full
inclusion model; (2) the conservationist model; and (3) the conciliatory model. The
paper's second section explains the resource cost model used to identify and
calculate the Kings Park special education costs for providing instructional
personnel, transportation, and facility resources during 1997-98. It also describes
the utility scales developed to project the study's mathematics and language arts
outcomes. The paper's third section presents the final cost analysis and utility
scale results for the study's three models. The study found the lowest or most
favorable utility ratio was for the conciliatory model, followed by the full
inclusion model. The least favorable utility ratio was for the conservationist model.
Descriptors: *Cost Effectiveness; *Delivery Systems; *Disabilities; Elementary
Secondary Education; *Inclusive Schools; Models; Outcomes of Education; Regular
and Special Education Relationship; Special Needs Students; Statistical Analysis;
Tables (Data); *Teaching Models
Identifiers: *Kings Park Central School District NY; *Utility Analysis
EJ597238 EC623678
Title: A Longitudinal Study of the Cost Effectiveness of Educating Students with
Emotional or Behavioral Disorders in a Public School Setting.
Author(s) MacMillan, Robert C.
Source: Behavioral Disorders, v25 n1 p65-75 Nov 1999
Publication Date: 1999
ISSN: 0198-7429
Document Type: Journal articles (080); Reports--Research (143)
Journal Announcement: CIJJUN2000
This study examines the pragmatic design and cost-effectiveness of the Marchus
School's 1261 Project, a California program that serves elementary and middle school
students with emotional or behavioral disorders within a public school setting. Case
studies demonstrated that not only have costs been avoided but funds have also been
saved.
Descriptors: *Behavior Disorders; Case Studies; *Cost Effectiveness; Elementary
Education; *Emotional Disturbances; *Inclusive Schools; Longitudinal Studies;
Middle Schools; *Program Design; Public Schools
Identifiers: *California
EJ589387 EA536014
Title: The Structure and Funding of Inclusive Schools.
Author(s) Boscardin, Mary Lynn; Jacobsen, Stephen L.
Source: Journal of Education Finance, v24 n4 p483-501 Spr 1999
Publication Date: 1999
ISSN: 0098-9495
Document Type: Journal articles (080); Reports--Evaluative (142)
Journal Announcement: CIJFEB2000
Explores ways to reduce funding fragmentation and develop a conceptual funding
framework based on inclusive schooling tenets. Instead of targeting specific program
units or categories of students, the inclusive school-finance framework provides more
adequate support by targeting specific students. Tensions among equity, efficiency,
and choice must first be eliminated.
Descriptors: Delivery Systems; Disabilities; *Educational Equity (Finance);
*Educational Finance; Elementary Secondary Education; *Inclusive Schools;
Integrated Services; Models; *School Organization; *Special Needs Students
Identifiers: *Conceptual Frameworks; Educational Adequacy
ED425568 EC306826
Title: The Patterns of Services Provided to Students with Disabilities.
Author(s) Chambers, Jay G.
Author Affiliation: American Institutes for Research in the Behavioral Sciences,
Palo Alto, CA. Center for Special Education Finance.(BBB31599)
Pages: 52
Publication Date: September 1998
Sponsoring Agency: Special Education Programs (ED/OSERS), Washington, DC. (EDD00017)
Contract No: H159520002
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC03 Plus Postage.
Availability: Center for Special Education Finance (CSEF), American Institutes for
Research, 1791 Arastradero Road, P.O. Box 1113, Palo Alto, CA 94302-1113; Tel: 650-
493-3550, ext 8500; Fax: 650-858-0958; e-mail: CSEF@air-ca.org; Web site: http://
www.csef.air.org
Document Type: Reports--Research (143)
Journal Announcement: RIEMAY1999
This paper reports the results of a study of 1,300 special education students
attending 81 elementary, middle, and high schools in Massachusetts that examined the
patterns of variation in services delivered to students with disabilities in relation
to student characteristics. Results of the study indicate that the majority of these
students spent some portion of their time in regular classrooms. Almost 57 percent
of the students served were in nondepartmentalized environments and spent some
portion of their week receiving services from regular self-contained classroom
teachers. Many students with disabilities received special education services while
in the regular classroom. In many cases, the data suggest that these special
education teachers served both special and regular education students while in these
classrooms. More than 34 percent of the students with disabilities in
nondepartmentalized environments were served in special classes, and almost 39
percent are served by a special education resource teacher in a resource room. For
the majority of students served in nondepartmentalized and in departmentalized
settings, approximately one-third of the per pupil costs of serving students with
disabilities are generated within the regular classroom settings. For ungraded
students, this percentage of expenditure accounted for in the regular setting falls
to around 7 percent. Although only small percentages of students are involved, it
appears that often students with more severe disabilities receive other specialized
or extended care services from nurses, health professionals, personal nurses, aides,
or other family counseling and social services.
Descriptors: *Disabilities; Educational Finance; Elementary Secondary Education;
*Expenditure per Student; Inclusive Schools; Mainstreaming; Program Costs;
*Regular and Special Education Relationship; Resource Room Programs; School
District Spending; Severity (of Disability); Special Classes; *Special Education;
*Special Needs Students; *Student Placement
Identifiers: *Massachusetts
ED411656 EC305848
Title: Cost Effectiveness of Maintaining Students with Emotional Disorders in the
Public School System.
Author(s) MacMillan, Bob; Grimes, Michael; Filler, Bill; Norton, Christie; Cooper,
Nancy; Gibson, Teresa
Pages: 12
Publication Date: September 10, 1997
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.
Document Type: Reports--Descriptive (141)
Journal Announcement: RIEFEB1998
This report examines the cost effectiveness of the Marchus School's 599/1261
Project, one of two programs funded by the State of California, that established an
inclusive education program for 17 students with serious emotional disturbances at
risk for nonpublic school placements. The project teaches academic, social, and
conflict resolution skills by using a social cognitive approach that fosters healthy
emotional development and academic achievement. The active support and participation
of each student's family is also encouraged. "Wrap around services" provided by
mental health and other agencies support the classroom staff and include services
such as a one-to-one assistant, a mobile therapist who provides therapy in the home
and school, and a behavioral intervention specialist. As a result of the project,
from August 1994 to August 1996 more than $333,000 was saved due to the avoidance of
more restrictive and costly educational settings. Four of the students were moved
from residential/group home settings to more normal living situations with family
members, an additional savings of $70,000. The total savings as a result of the
project was over $700,000 in two years. The report includes case studies for three
of the students and recommendations for successful replication of the model.
Descriptors: *Academic Achievement; *Behavior Modification; Case Studies; *Cost
Effectiveness; Elementary Secondary Education; Emotional Development; *Emotional
Disturbances; Family Involvement; *Inclusive Schools; *Integrated Services;
Interpersonal Competence; Mainstreaming; Models; Public Schools; Social Cognition
ED412699 EC305914
Title: Special Education in an Era of School Reform: Special Education Finance.
Author(s) Parrish, Thomas B.
Author Affiliation: Federal Resource Center for Special Education, Lexington,
KY.(BBB30221); American Institutes for Research in the Behavioral Sciences, Palo
Alto, CA. Center for Special Education Finance.(BBB31599); Academy for Educational
Development, Washington, DC.(FGK00112)
Pages: 53
Publication Date: September 1997
Sponsoring Agency: Special Education Programs (ED/OSERS), Washington, DC. (EDD00017)
Contract No: HS93033001
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC03 Plus Postage.
Availability: Federal Resource Center, Academy for Educational Development, 1875
Connecticut Avenue, Suite 900, Washington, DC 20009; telephone: 202-884-8215.
Document Type: Guides--Non-classroom (055); Information Analysis (070); Reports--
Descriptive (141)
Journal Announcement: RIEMAR1998
This report summarizes and discusses some of the major fiscal policy questions
surrounding the funding of special education in the current era of school reform.
Part 1, "Current Special Education Financing: Issues and Provisions," addresses how
special education is currently funded and the different formulas used for special
education funding. Issues that are driving the reform of special education funding
are outlined, including the need for greater flexibility in placement and use, rising
special education costs and enrollments, concerns over the efficiency of special
education services, the strict categorical nature of special education services, and
fiscal policies that work at cross purposes with inclusion policies. Part 2 of the
report, "State and Federal Reform Initiatives" discusses different ways that
governments are addressing the issues of special education funding, including census-
based funding, adjusting special education funding based on student poverty, removing
fiscal incentives for restrictive placements, changing the federal "incidental
benefit" rule, and blended funding and service provisions. Criteria that states
should consider when developing funding systems to foster effective special education
programming, how states' fiscal policies can encourage integrated services, and ways
states have been able to overcome difficulties in implementing fiscal reform policies
are also reviewed.
Descriptors: *Disabilities; *Economic Factors; *Educational Finance; Educational
Innovation; Elementary Secondary Education; Expenditure per Student; *Finance
Reform; Financial Policy; Financial Support; Inclusive Schools; Program Costs;
*Special Education; *State Aid; Student Costs; Student Placement
EJ548958 EA533664
Title: The Interaction of Shifting Special Education Policies with State Funding
Practices.
Author(s) Jordan, Teresa S.; And Others
Source: Journal of Education Finance, v12 n1 p43-68 Sum 1997
Publication Date: 1997
ISSN: 0098-9495
Document Type: Journal articles (080); Reports--Research (143)
Journal Announcement: CIJJAN1998
The policy shift to inclusion of students with disabilities in the general
classroom, broad interest in school reform, and desire to implement new instructional
arrangements for all students is spurring changes in state funding systems for
special education. Deliver-system weights, population-based funding, and funding
models should help revamp incompatible school finance programs.
Descriptors: *Disabilities; *Educational Finance; *Educational Policy; Elementary
Secondary Education; *Inclusive Schools; *Special Education; *State Aid
Identifiers: *Funding Formulas
ED393249 EC304693
Title: A Cost-Benefit Comparison of Inclusive and Integrated Classes in One
California District.
Author(s) Halvorsen, Ann T.; And Others
Pages: 41
Publication Date: 1996
Notes: In: California Peers Outreach Project: Application and Replication of
Inclusive Models at the Local Level. Final Report; see EC 304 691.
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC02 Plus Postage.
Document Type: Reports--Research (143)
Journal Announcement: RIEAUG1996
This study compared the actual resource costs and outcomes of instruction in
inclusive classrooms with the costs and outcomes of special class/integrated
instruction in a California school district where both types of programs were
operating. Four students included in general elementary education classrooms were
matched with four pupils from special education classes who spent part of their day
in general education classes. Results showed that inclusive education costs were an
average of 13 percent lower than those of special class placement. Comparison of
general and special education resource contributions found that special education
contributed only 65 percent as much of total program costs for included students when
compared with special class pupils. Also, special education contributed an average
of $1,655 per general education inclusive class, compared with less than $35 per
class where special class students were partially integrated. Analysis of student
outcomes indicated that included students interacted more with peers and general
education teachers and less with special education staff than the partially
integrated group, but special class students demonstrated more student-initiated
interaction and a higher level of engagement. There were no differences in perceived
achievement of student educational objectives.
Descriptors: Academic Achievement; *Cost Effectiveness; Costs; *Disabilities;
Elementary Education; *Inclusive Schools; Mainstreaming; *Outcomes of Education;
Peer Relationship; Regular and Special Education Relationship; Resource Allocation;
Social Integration; Special Classes; *Special Education; Teacher Student
Relationship; Time on Task
Identifiers: California
ED391271 EC304520
Title: State Special Education Funding Formulas and the Use of Separate Placements
for Students with Disabilities: Exploring Linkages. CSEF Policy Paper Number 7.
Author(s) O'Reilly, Fran E.
Author Affiliation: American Institutes for Research in the Behavioral Sciences,
Palo Alto, CA. Center for Special Education Finance.(BBB31599)
Pages: 31
Publication Date: December 1995
Sponsoring Agency: Special Education Programs (ED/OSERS), Washington, DC. (EDD00017)
Contract No: H159G20002
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC02 Plus Postage.
Document Type: Reports--Evaluative (142)
Journal Announcement: RIEJUN1996
This study addressed the relationship between alternative types of state funding
formulas and the use of separate placements for students with disabilities, and
identified other characteristics of states that might be associated with the degree
to which they use separate placements for the delivery of special services. Three
research questions are addressed: (1) identification of states which are high or low
users of separate placements for students with disabilities; (2) identification of
any relationships existing between use of separate placements and a state's type of
funding mechanism; and (3) other factors associated with a state's high or low use of
separate placements. First, states were ranked on their use of separate placements
based on federally reported data for the 1991-92 school year. Second, components of
state funding systems were reviewed to identify patterns or likely relationships.
Third, state administrators in states identified as high or low users of separate
placements were interviewed to discuss possible relationships. Finally, when
interviews revealed that demographic characteristics might play an important role in
the use of separate placements, geographic and regional relationships were
investigated. States that are low users of separate placements tended to use a
funding formula not explicitly linked to student placement. No single type of
funding formula was found for states that ranked high in their use of separate
placements. Administrators did not feel that state funding formula alone was a
strong influence on student placement policy. Other factors, such as geographic
features, history, and educational tradition, were identified as possible
contributors to the extent of separate placements.
Descriptors: *Disabilities; *Educational Finance; Educational Practices;
Educational Trends; Elementary Secondary Education; *Financial Policy; Inclusive
Schools; Mainstreaming; *Regular and Special Education Relationship; State
Regulation; State Standards; *Student Placement
Identifiers: *Funding Formulas
ED391269 EC304518
Title: Fiscal Issues Related to the Inclusion of Students with Disabilities.
Author(s) Parrish, Thomas B.
Author Affiliation: American Institutes for Research in the Behavioral Sciences,
Palo Alto, CA. Center for Special Education Finance. (BBB31599)
Source: CSEF Brief, n7 Fall 1995 Pages: 5
Publication Date: 1995
Sponsoring Agency: Special Education Programs (ED/OSERS), Washington, DC. (EDD00017)
Contract No: H159G20002
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.
Document Type: Collected works--Serials (022)
Journal Announcement: RIEJUN1996
This policy brief examines the relationship between fiscal policies in special
education and the requirement under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
that students with disabilities be educated in the least restrictive environment
appropriate to their needs. It discusses the effects of state fiscal policy on the
provision of special education programs, focusing in particular on fiscal incentives
related to the identification and placement of students with disabilities. The brief
emphasizes that changes in fiscal policy alone are unlikely to effect reform. State
fiscal policies affecting the placement of students with disabilities include aid
differentials related to placement, separate funding mechanisms for separate
placements, and separate funding for transportation. States reporting success with
fiscal reform stress the need not only to remove disincentives for restricted
placements, but to provide a comprehensive system of professional development and
support related to the desired program reform.
Descriptors: Change Strategies; Compliance (Legal); *Disabilities; Disability
Identification; *Educational Finance; Educational Legislation; Elementary
Secondary Education; Federal Legislation; *Financial Policy; *Inclusive Schools;
Special Education; State Legislation; *Student Placement
Identifiers: Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
EJ517752 EA531089
Title: A Sense of Place: Inclusive Educational Settings for Students with
Disabilities.
Author(s) Lenk, Linda L.
Source: Journal for a Just and Caring Education, v1 n3 p311-19 Jul 1995
Publication Date: 1995
ISSN: 1076-285X
Document Type: Information Analysis (070); Journal articles (080); Legal/
Legislative/Regulatory materials (090); Reports--Evaluative (142)
Journal Announcement: CIJJUN1996
If recent trends for serving students with severe disabilities continue, concerns
about program costs and benefits may join those of policy and best practice. This
article briefly reviews the full-inclusion literature, examines recent case law,
considers program costs, and provides conclusions and implications for future
decision making.
Descriptors: *Cost Effectiveness; *Court Litigation; *Educational Trends;
Elementary Secondary Education; *Inclusive Schools; *Severe Disabilities; *Special
Needs Students
EJ506587 EA530845
Does Inclusion Cost More? The Cost of Special Education.
Mawdsley, Ralph D.
School Business Affairs, v61 n7 p27-31 Jul 1995
ISSN: 0036-651X
Document Type: EVALUATIVE REPORT (142); JOURNAL ARTICLE (080)
Journal Announcement: CIJNOV95
Whether inclusion will produce resource economies for school districts is difficult
to determine. Districts that have developed inclusive models have reported mixed
results. There appear to be no savings in personnel costs, although some overall
reduction in transportation expenditure has occurred. Inclusion demands a more
fluid approach to resource allocation.
Descriptors: *Academic Achievement; *Behavior Modification; Case Studies; *Cost
Effectiveness; Elementary Secondary Education; Emotional Development;
*Emotional Disturbances; Family Involvement; *Inclusive Schools; *Integrated
Services; Interpersonal Competence; Mainstreaming; Models; Public Schools;
Social Cognition
EJ492834 EA529925
The Costs of Inclusion.
McLaughlin, Margaret J.; Warren, Sandra Hopfengardner
School Administrator, v51 n10 p8-12,16-19 Nov 1994
ISSN: 0036-6439
Document Type: EVALUATIVE REPORT (142); JOURNAL ARTICLE (080)
Journal Announcement: CIJMAR95
To obtain information about costs, University of Maryland researchers interviewed
special education directors, principals, and other administrators in 14 schools or
districts committed to including all students with disabilities. Respondents
identified five affected areas: teachers and instructional assistants, transportation,
facilities, materials and equipment, and professional development. Inclusion has
startup costs but is probably cost effective over time.
Descriptors: *Budgeting; *Costs; *Delivery Systems; *Disabilities; Elementary
Secondary Education; *Mainstreaming; Professional Development; *Special
Education; Student Transportation; Teacher Distribution
Identifiers: *Inclusive
Educational Programs
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